Academic Writing: Session 15

Session 15 · Module 4 90 minutes · self-paced

Functional Academic Phraseology

This session continues Module 4 by expanding your command of content-neutral sentence frames. You will learn to categorize frames by rhetorical purpose, distinguish permissible formulaic language from plagiarism, and vary your reporting verbs.

By the end of this session, you will be able to:

●Identify and categorize content-neutral, generic academic sentence frames across major research paper sections.
●Distinguish between standard formulaic building blocks and original authorial phrasing that requires attribution.
●Deploy functional sentence frames for defining terms, describing methodologies, presenting trends, and signaling critical stance.
●Apply supplementary grammar and usage guidelines when completing phraseological templates.

Phase 1 15 minutes

The Concept of Content-Neutral Academic Phraseology

🎤 Listen: content-neutral phrases and the plagiarism boundary ♫

What is academic phraseology?

Scholarly English relies heavily on standardized, generic phrase formulas that form the “nuts and bolts” of scientific communication across disciplines. These frames carry no discipline-specific content of their own; they provide the connective structure into which any topic can be inserted.

The plagiarism boundary

Using standard, content-neutral sentence frames — such as “Recent research has shown that…” or “Data were gathered using…” — is fully permissible and does not constitute plagiarism. These phrases are communal property. Plagiarism occurs when a writer copies an author’s original analysis, unique ideas, or specific wording, not when a writer reuses a generic structural template.

Check: which of these would count as plagiarism if used without citation?

Shared frame or protected content?

Type	Example	Citation needed?
Generic frame	“Data were gathered using…”	No. It is shared academic phrasing.
Generic frame	“A potential limitation of this approach is…”	No. Add your own content after the frame.
Distinctive wording	A memorable sentence or metaphor that one author created to explain an idea	Yes. Quote it or paraphrase it, and cite the source.
Original analysis	A researcher’s specific interpretation of their own results	Yes.
Specific findings	A statistic or result from a named study	Yes.

Where to find frames: collections such as the Academic Phrasebank list content-neutral frames by function. Use them as scaffolding, then fill every gap with your own topic, data and citations. A frame gives you the structure; it never supplies the ideas.

Extra practice (optional)

Check 2: which sentence needs a citation?

Check 3: is this acceptable without a citation? “A key distinction between [Concept A] and [Concept B] lies in…”

Practice: explain in one or two sentences why reusing a standard frame is acceptable but copying a paragraph is not.

Write a short explanation for a classmate who is worried about plagiarism.

Model: “Standard frames such as ‘Recent research has shown that…’ are shared by the whole academic community and carry no ideas of their own. A copied paragraph, however, contains another author’s original analysis and wording, so it must be quoted or paraphrased and cited.”

Phase 2 30 minutes

Rhetorical Categorization of Sentence Frames

Sentence frames cluster around four major communicative functions. Each list below gives you a wider choice of frames, so you can vary your phrasing across a paper.

Defining Concepts Describing Methods Reporting Trends Discussing Results

DefineDefining concepts and introducing work

“In the context of this study, [Term] is defined as…”
“For the purposes of this paper, [Term] refers to…”
“A key distinction between [Concept A] and [Concept B] lies in…”
“The term [X] is used here to describe…”
“The primary objective of this investigation is to examine…”
“This study seeks to determine whether…”
“The central research question is: To what extent does [A] influence [B]?”
“[Concept] is commonly understood as…, although definitions vary across disciplines.”

MethodsDescribing methodologies and data collection

“To evaluate [Variable], a semi-structured survey was administered to…”
“Data were analyzed using multi-variable regression models.”
“Participants were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions.”
“A total of [N] participants were recruited from…”
“Data were collected over a period of [X] weeks by means of…”
“Informed consent was obtained from all participants.”
“Responses were coded independently by two researchers to ensure reliability.”
“[Variable] was measured using a scale ranging from 1 to 10.”
“Differences between groups were tested using a paired t-test.”
“Participants were excluded if…”

TrendsReporting trends and empirical findings

“The empirical results indicate a statistically significant relationship between…”
“As shown in Table 1, [Variable A] experienced a substantial increase…”
“Contrary to initial expectations, no significant difference was observed…”
“[Variable] rose sharply from [X] to [Y] between [time] and [time].”
“Figure 2 illustrates a steady decline in…”
“The data reveal a marked contrast between…”
“Overall, [X] remained relatively stable throughout the period.”
“The majority of participants reported…”
“These differences were statistically significant (p < 0.05).”
“The most striking finding is that…”

DiscussDiscussing results, implications and critical stance

“These findings corroborate earlier research by Smith (2020)…”
“A potential limitation of this approach is its reliance on…”
“These results should be interpreted with caution because…”
“One plausible explanation for this result is…”
“The findings are consistent with the view that…”
“These results stand in contrast to those of…”
“These results have important implications for…”
“The findings suggest that practitioners might consider…”
“Future research should investigate whether…”
“Despite these limitations, the study contributes to…”

Vocabulary for describing trends and degree

Movement	Verbs	Example
Increase	rise, grow, climb, increase, escalate	“Enrollment rose sharply between 2015 and 2020.”
Decrease	fall, decline, drop, decrease, diminish	“Absenteeism declined steadily over the period.”
Stability	remain stable, plateau, level off, stay constant	“Scores leveled off after the third week.”
Fluctuation	fluctuate, vary, oscillate	“Prices fluctuated throughout the year.”

Degree	Adverbs	Adjectives
Large or fast	sharply, dramatically, considerably	substantial, marked, considerable
Gradual	steadily, gradually, progressively	steady, gradual
Small	slightly, marginally, modestly	slight, modest, negligible

Say “not statistically significant,” not “insignificant.” A result can be small or unimportant in practice without being labelled “insignificant”; the statistical term describes the test result only.

Check: which category does “As shown in Table 1, X experienced a substantial increase” belong to?

Practice: write a “discussing results” sentence about a limitation, using a frame from above.

Model: “A potential limitation of this approach is its reliance on self-reported survey data, which may be subject to recall bias.”

Extra practice (optional)

Check 2: which category does this frame belong to? “Participants were excluded if they had missed more than two sessions.”

Check 3: which category does this frame belong to? “One plausible explanation for this result is…”

Check 4: which category does this frame belong to? “The primary objective of this investigation is to examine…”

Check 5: choose the correct verb form.

“Sales ________ sharply between 2019 and 2021.”

Check 6: which sentence reports a non-significant result correctly?

Practice 2 (methods): rewrite this using a methods frame and the passive voice.

“We asked 200 students to fill in a questionnaire. We picked them randomly.”

Model: “A questionnaire was administered to 200 students, who were selected through random sampling.”

Practice 3 (trends): rewrite this using a trend frame and precise vocabulary.

“Table 3 shows unemployment went down slowly from 8% to 6% over five years.”

Model: “As shown in Table 3, unemployment declined steadily from 8% to 6% over the five-year period.”

Practice 4 (implications): rewrite this using a discussion frame.

“Our results mean schools should use more feedback.”

Model: “These results have important implications for schools, suggesting that greater use of formative feedback may be beneficial.”

Practice 5 (defining): rewrite these two sentences using a definition frame and an aim frame.

“Grit is when people keep going even if it is hard. This paper looks at grit and grades.”

Model: “In the context of this study, grit is defined as sustained effort towards long-term goals despite difficulty. The primary objective of this investigation is to examine the relationship between grit and academic performance.”

Phase 3 20 minutes

Grammar and Usage in Template Filling

Prepositional precision

Selecting correct prepositions in formulaic expressions matters as much as the frame itself.

Expression	Correct preposition
in accordance ___ the guidelines	with
with respect ___ sample size	to
attributed ___ measurement error	to
correlated ___ income level	with

Subject-verb agreement

Complex subject noun phrases in academic frames can obscure the true grammatical subject.

Incorrect: “The majority of studies conducted in this area indicates…”
Correct: “The majority of studies conducted in this area indicate…” (the subject is “studies,” plural, not “majority” treated as singular here since it refers to countable items)

Check: which preposition correctly completes “These results are attributed ___ sampling variability”?

More verb, noun and adjective + preposition combinations

Expression	Preposition	Example
differ ___	from	“These results differ from earlier findings.”
consist ___	of	“The sample consisted of 180 employees.”
be based ___	on	“The model is based on survey data.”
depend ___	on	“The outcome depends on sample size.”
result ___ (outcome) / result ___ (cause)	in / from	“Delays resulted in higher costs.” “Higher costs resulted from delays.”
lead ___ / contribute ___	to	“Stress contributes to absenteeism.”
be associated ___	with	“Sleep loss is associated with lower performance.”
account ___ / focus ___	for / on	“Age accounts for part of the variance.” “This study focuses on first-year students.”
an increase ___ / the effect of X ___ Y	in / on	“an increase in stress”; “the effect of feedback on revision”
compared ___	with / to	“Scores were higher compared with the baseline.”
in terms ___	of	“Results were similar in terms of cost.”

More subject-verb agreement traps

Trap	Correct	Why
the number of / a number of	“The number of participants was 60.” “A number of participants were excluded.”	“The number” is singular; “a number of” means “several” and takes a plural verb.
data	“The data were collected in 2022.”	Formal academic writing usually treats “data” as plural. Check your journal’s style guide.
neither … nor	“Neither the survey nor the interviews revealed an effect.”	The verb agrees with the nearer subject.
each of / one of	“Each of the participants was interviewed.”	The subject is “each” or “one,” which is singular.
research	“Research on this topic is growing.”	“Research” is uncountable: not “researches.”

Extra practice (optional)

Check 2: choose the correct preposition.

“These results differ ________ those reported by Lee (2020).”

Check 3: choose the correct preposition.

“The final outcome depends ________ the sample size.”

Check 4: choose the correct verb.

“The number of participants ________ 48.”

Check 5: choose the correct verb.

“A number of studies ________ reported similar effects.”

Check 6: choose the correct form for formal academic writing.

Check 7: choose the correct sentence.

Practice 2 (error correction): correct the two errors in this sentence.

“The number of participants were 60, and the results was analyzed using SPSS.”

Model: “The number of participants was 60, and the results were analyzed using SPSS.”

Practice 3 (error correction): correct the preposition errors.

“This is different with earlier work and depends of sample size.”

Model: “This differs from earlier work and depends on sample size.”

Practice 4 (error correction): correct the sentence.

“A large number of factor contributes for the variation in scores.”

Model: “A large number of factors contribute to the variation in scores.”

Phase 4 15 minutes

Expanding Student Repertory and Avoiding Monotony

Varying reporting verbs

Move beyond repetitive verbs like “shows” or “says” by introducing nuanced alternatives: demonstrates, suggests, argues, contends, reiterates, substantiates.

Overused	Nuanced alternatives
shows	demonstrates, illustrates, reveals
says	argues, contends, asserts, maintains
proves	substantiates, corroborates, supports
talks about	examines, addresses, explores

Check: which is a more nuanced alternative to “says” when reporting a researcher’s position?

More reporting verbs by function

Function	Verbs	Example
Presenting neutrally	reports, notes, observes, describes, examines	“Kim (2022) observes that…”
Presenting strong evidence	demonstrates, establishes, confirms, verifies	“The trial confirms that…”
Presenting tentative evidence	suggests, indicates, implies, points to	“The data point to a link between…”
Presenting a position	argues, contends, maintains, asserts, proposes	“Martin (2020) maintains that…”
Questioning or disagreeing	challenges, disputes, questions, refutes	“Park (2023) challenges this view…”

From informal to formal vocabulary

Informal	Academic alternative
a lot of / lots of	a substantial number of, a considerable amount of
big, huge	substantial, considerable, significant
get, got	obtain, receive, acquire, become
find out	determine, establish, ascertain
look at	examine, investigate, consider
use	employ, apply, utilize
need	require
enough	sufficient, adequate
but, so	however, therefore, consequently
think	consider, argue, propose

Useful academic collocations

conduct a study / an analysis / an experiment
administer a survey / a questionnaire
yield results / findings
draw a conclusion / draw on previous work
address a gap / a limitation / a question
raise concerns / raise questions
pose a challenge / pose a risk
shed light on / lend support to
account for the variance / a proportion of the sample
warrant further investigation

Extra practice (optional)

Check 2: which word is the most formal way to say “get” in a methods section?

“Ethical approval was ________ before data collection began.”

Check 3: choose the best replacement for “a lot of”.

“________ participants reported improved sleep.”

Check 4: choose the correct collocation.

Check 5: choose the correct collocation.

“These findings ________ the mechanisms behind the effect.”

Check 6: which verb best reports a disagreement?

Practice 2 (formal vocabulary): rewrite this sentence in academic English.

“The study looked at how kids get better at reading. It found out that a lot of them need more help.”

Model: “The study examined how children improve their reading skills. It determined that a substantial number of them require additional support.”

Practice 3 (variety): rewrite these three repetitive sentences using different reporting verbs and connectives.

“Smith (2019) shows that feedback helps. Jones (2020) shows that feedback does not help. Lee (2021) shows that it depends on the student.”

Model: “Smith (2019) demonstrates that feedback is beneficial, whereas Jones (2020) suggests that it has little effect. Lee (2021) further contends that its impact depends on the individual student.”

Practice 15 minutes

Phraseological Frame Workshop

Convert each informal or repetitive draft sentence into polished academic prose using functional sentence frames.

1. “This paper talks about green energy. First, I will define green energy. Green energy means power from natural sources.”

Model: “This paper examines renewable energy systems. To establish a theoretical foundation, renewable energy is here defined as power generated from naturally replenished resources.”

2. “The table shows that sales went up a lot. This proves our idea was right.”

Model: “As illustrated in Table 2, sales recorded a substantial increase, thereby supporting our initial hypothesis.”

Extra practice (optional)

3. Convert this draft into a methods sentence.

“We used a survey. We asked 300 people. It was about their sleep. We used a computer program to check the numbers.”

Model: “A survey on sleep habits was administered to 300 participants, and the responses were analyzed using statistical software.”

4. Convert this draft into a results sentence.

“The graph shows that the number of users went up a lot in 2021 and then it went down a bit in 2022.”

Model: “Figure 1 illustrates a sharp rise in the number of users in 2021, followed by a slight decline in 2022.”

5. Convert this draft into a discussion sentence.

“This is a big problem and our results are really important. More research must be done.”

Model: “This issue is of considerable significance, and the present findings have important implications for practice. Further research is needed to determine whether these effects persist over time.”

6. Convert this draft into a short paragraph using at least three different frames.

“We wanted to know if apps help students. We gave 90 students an app for 8 weeks. They got better grades, but we are not sure the app caused it.”

Model: “The primary objective of this study was to examine whether learning apps improve academic performance. Ninety students were provided with an app for eight weeks. Grades improved; however, these results should be interpreted with caution because a causal relationship cannot be established.”

Assignment Homework

Functional Phraseology Portfolio

Below is a raw dataset summary and three unstructured research notes on a workplace wellness study.

Raw dataset: 180 employees across 6 companies completed a 12-week flexible-scheduling pilot. Pre- and post-pilot surveys measured self-reported stress (1-10 scale) and absenteeism (days per month).

Note 1: Average stress score dropped from 6.8 to 5.1 after the pilot.

Note 2: Absenteeism fell by roughly 22% across all six companies, though one company saw almost no change.

Note 3: Researchers used a paired t-test to compare pre- and post-pilot stress scores; the difference was statistically significant (p < 0.01).

Task: Draft a 200-word mini-methodology and results section utilizing at least six distinct functional sentence frames from the categories covered in this session (defining, methods, trends, discussion). Vary your reporting verbs and check preposition usage and subject-verb agreement carefully.

Model answer: mini-methodology and results section (208 words)

[Define] The primary objective of this investigation is to examine whether flexible scheduling can reduce employee stress and absenteeism. In the context of this study, flexible scheduling is defined as an arrangement that gives employees some control over their start and finish times.

[Methods] To evaluate the effects of the pilot, 180 employees across six companies participated in a 12-week flexible-scheduling program. Self-reported stress (on a scale from 1 to 10) and absenteeism (days per month) were measured by means of pre- and post-pilot surveys. Differences between pre- and post-pilot stress scores were tested using a paired t-test.

[Trends] The results indicate a statistically significant reduction in stress (p < 0.01), with mean scores falling from 6.8 to 5.1. As shown in the post-pilot surveys, absenteeism declined by roughly 22% across the six companies. However, this pattern was not uniform, since one company recorded almost no change.

[Discuss] These findings suggest that flexible scheduling may reduce stress and absenteeism in workplace settings, and they are consistent with the view that greater control over working hours reduces work-related strain. Nevertheless, the results should be interpreted with caution because stress was self-reported and the pre-post design cannot rule out other explanations. Further research is needed to establish why one company showed almost no change.

Frames used (12):

The primary objective of this investigation is to examine… (Define)
In the context of this study, [Term] is defined as… (Define)
To evaluate [Variable]… was/were… (Methods)
…were measured by means of… (Methods)
Differences between… were tested using a paired t-test (Methods)
The results indicate a statistically significant… (Trends)
As shown in… (Trends)
However, this pattern was not uniform… (Trends)
These findings suggest that… (Discuss)
…are consistent with the view that… (Discuss)
These results should be interpreted with caution because… (Discuss)
Further research is needed to establish… (Discuss)

Why this works: The model draws on all four categories: defining, methods, trends and discussion. It varies its reporting verbs (“indicate,” “suggest”) and uses trend vocabulary (“falling from,” “declined”). It also uses the passive voice for procedures, past tense for completed actions and present tense for interpretation. Prepositions and subject-verb agreement are checked: “by means of,” “tested using,” “consistent with,” “a reduction in,” “the results should be.” Only figures from the raw dataset and notes are used, and the discussion hedges its claims with “may” and “suggest.”

Submit your draft using the form below.

Takeaway Reference sheet

Session 15 Summary Sheet

Download a two-page PDF summarising the four phraseology categories, the plagiarism boundary, grammar guidelines, and a phrase bank with vocabulary from this session.

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Session 15: Functional Academic Phraseology

Four phrase categories · plagiarism boundary · prepositions · reporting verbs

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Session 15 complete

You have covered content-neutral phraseology, the plagiarism boundary, four categories of functional sentence frames, prepositional precision, subject-verb agreement, and reporting verb variety. Download your takeaway summary any time from the previous step.

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