Functional Academic Phraseology
This session continues Module 4 by expanding your command of content-neutral sentence frames. You will learn to categorize frames by rhetorical purpose, distinguish permissible formulaic language from plagiarism, and vary your reporting verbs.
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
- Identify and categorize content-neutral, generic academic sentence frames across major research paper sections.
- Distinguish between standard formulaic building blocks and original authorial phrasing that requires attribution.
- Deploy functional sentence frames for defining terms, describing methodologies, presenting trends, and signaling critical stance.
- Apply supplementary grammar and usage guidelines when completing phraseological templates.
The Concept of Content-Neutral Academic Phraseology
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[00:00]
In the last session, you used functional phrases to synthesize sources: agreeing, contrasting, extending, and explaining. In this session, we look more closely at the idea behind those phrases, and at how to use them well.
[00:15]
Scholarly English relies on standard phrase formulas. Think of expressions such as “Recent research has shown that” or “Data were gathered using.” These are the nuts and bolts of academic communication. They carry no subject matter of their own. Instead, they provide a structure into which any topic can be placed in any discipline. This is why they are so useful. Because the frame is neutral, you can spend your effort on your ideas, your evidence and your citations, instead of inventing basic phrasing every time you write.
[00:51]
Many learners ask an important question: Is using these phrases plagiarism? The answer is no. Standard, content-neutral sentence frames are shared by the whole academic community. Using them is fully acceptable, and you do not need to cite them. Plagiarism is something different. It happens when a writer copies another author’s original analysis, distinctive ideas, or specific wording without acknowledgement. The difference lies in ownership. A generic template belongs to everyone. A researcher’s argument and exact words belong to that researcher.
[01:29]
Keep this boundary in mind throughout the session. You will learn to categorize frames by their rhetorical purpose, fill them in accurately, and vary them so that your writing stays precise without becoming repetitive.
What is academic phraseology?
Scholarly English relies heavily on standardized, generic phrase formulas that form the “nuts and bolts” of scientific communication across disciplines. These frames carry no discipline-specific content of their own; they provide the connective structure into which any topic can be inserted.
The plagiarism boundary
Using standard, content-neutral sentence frames — such as “Recent research has shown that…” or “Data were gathered using…” — is fully permissible and does not constitute plagiarism. These phrases are communal property. Plagiarism occurs when a writer copies an author’s original analysis, unique ideas, or specific wording, not when a writer reuses a generic structural template.
Shared frame or protected content?
| Type | Example | Citation needed? |
|---|---|---|
| Generic frame | “Data were gathered using…” | No. It is shared academic phrasing. |
| Generic frame | “A potential limitation of this approach is…” | No. Add your own content after the frame. |
| Distinctive wording | A memorable sentence or metaphor that one author created to explain an idea | Yes. Quote it or paraphrase it, and cite the source. |
| Original analysis | A researcher’s specific interpretation of their own results | Yes. |
| Specific findings | A statistic or result from a named study | Yes. |
Where to find frames: collections such as the Academic Phrasebank list content-neutral frames by function. Use them as scaffolding, then fill every gap with your own topic, data and citations. A frame gives you the structure; it never supplies the ideas.
Extra practice (optional)
Write a short explanation for a classmate who is worried about plagiarism.
Rhetorical Categorization of Sentence Frames
Sentence frames cluster around four major communicative functions. Each list below gives you a wider choice of frames, so you can vary your phrasing across a paper.
DefineDefining concepts and introducing work
- “In the context of this study, [Term] is defined as…”
- “For the purposes of this paper, [Term] refers to…”
- “A key distinction between [Concept A] and [Concept B] lies in…”
- “The term [X] is used here to describe…”
- “The primary objective of this investigation is to examine…”
- “This study seeks to determine whether…”
- “The central research question is: To what extent does [A] influence [B]?”
- “[Concept] is commonly understood as…, although definitions vary across disciplines.”
MethodsDescribing methodologies and data collection
- “To evaluate [Variable], a semi-structured survey was administered to…”
- “Data were analyzed using multi-variable regression models.”
- “Participants were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions.”
- “A total of [N] participants were recruited from…”
- “Data were collected over a period of [X] weeks by means of…”
- “Informed consent was obtained from all participants.”
- “Responses were coded independently by two researchers to ensure reliability.”
- “[Variable] was measured using a scale ranging from 1 to 10.”
- “Differences between groups were tested using a paired t-test.”
- “Participants were excluded if…”
TrendsReporting trends and empirical findings
- “The empirical results indicate a statistically significant relationship between…”
- “As shown in Table 1, [Variable A] experienced a substantial increase…”
- “Contrary to initial expectations, no significant difference was observed…”
- “[Variable] rose sharply from [X] to [Y] between [time] and [time].”
- “Figure 2 illustrates a steady decline in…”
- “The data reveal a marked contrast between…”
- “Overall, [X] remained relatively stable throughout the period.”
- “The majority of participants reported…”
- “These differences were statistically significant (p < 0.05).”
- “The most striking finding is that…”
DiscussDiscussing results, implications and critical stance
- “These findings corroborate earlier research by Smith (2020)…”
- “A potential limitation of this approach is its reliance on…”
- “These results should be interpreted with caution because…”
- “One plausible explanation for this result is…”
- “The findings are consistent with the view that…”
- “These results stand in contrast to those of…”
- “These results have important implications for…”
- “The findings suggest that practitioners might consider…”
- “Future research should investigate whether…”
- “Despite these limitations, the study contributes to…”
Vocabulary for describing trends and degree
| Movement | Verbs | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Increase | rise, grow, climb, increase, escalate | “Enrollment rose sharply between 2015 and 2020.” |
| Decrease | fall, decline, drop, decrease, diminish | “Absenteeism declined steadily over the period.” |
| Stability | remain stable, plateau, level off, stay constant | “Scores leveled off after the third week.” |
| Fluctuation | fluctuate, vary, oscillate | “Prices fluctuated throughout the year.” |
| Degree | Adverbs | Adjectives |
|---|---|---|
| Large or fast | sharply, dramatically, considerably | substantial, marked, considerable |
| Gradual | steadily, gradually, progressively | steady, gradual |
| Small | slightly, marginally, modestly | slight, modest, negligible |
Say “not statistically significant,” not “insignificant.” A result can be small or unimportant in practice without being labelled “insignificant”; the statistical term describes the test result only.
Extra practice (optional)
“Sales ________ sharply between 2019 and 2021.”
“We asked 200 students to fill in a questionnaire. We picked them randomly.”
“Table 3 shows unemployment went down slowly from 8% to 6% over five years.”
“Our results mean schools should use more feedback.”
“Grit is when people keep going even if it is hard. This paper looks at grit and grades.”
Grammar and Usage in Template Filling
Prepositional precision
Selecting correct prepositions in formulaic expressions matters as much as the frame itself.
| Expression | Correct preposition |
|---|---|
| in accordance ___ the guidelines | with |
| with respect ___ sample size | to |
| attributed ___ measurement error | to |
| correlated ___ income level | with |
Subject-verb agreement
Complex subject noun phrases in academic frames can obscure the true grammatical subject.
Incorrect: “The majority of studies conducted in this area indicates…”
Correct: “The majority of studies conducted in this area indicate…” (the subject is “studies,” plural, not “majority” treated as singular here since it refers to countable items)
More verb, noun and adjective + preposition combinations
| Expression | Preposition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| differ ___ | from | “These results differ from earlier findings.” |
| consist ___ | of | “The sample consisted of 180 employees.” |
| be based ___ | on | “The model is based on survey data.” |
| depend ___ | on | “The outcome depends on sample size.” |
| result ___ (outcome) / result ___ (cause) | in / from | “Delays resulted in higher costs.” “Higher costs resulted from delays.” |
| lead ___ / contribute ___ | to | “Stress contributes to absenteeism.” |
| be associated ___ | with | “Sleep loss is associated with lower performance.” |
| account ___ / focus ___ | for / on | “Age accounts for part of the variance.” “This study focuses on first-year students.” |
| an increase ___ / the effect of X ___ Y | in / on | “an increase in stress”; “the effect of feedback on revision” |
| compared ___ | with / to | “Scores were higher compared with the baseline.” |
| in terms ___ | of | “Results were similar in terms of cost.” |
More subject-verb agreement traps
| Trap | Correct | Why |
|---|---|---|
| the number of / a number of | “The number of participants was 60.” “A number of participants were excluded.” | “The number” is singular; “a number of” means “several” and takes a plural verb. |
| data | “The data were collected in 2022.” | Formal academic writing usually treats “data” as plural. Check your journal’s style guide. |
| neither … nor | “Neither the survey nor the interviews revealed an effect.” | The verb agrees with the nearer subject. |
| each of / one of | “Each of the participants was interviewed.” | The subject is “each” or “one,” which is singular. |
| research | “Research on this topic is growing.” | “Research” is uncountable: not “researches.” |
Extra practice (optional)
“These results differ ________ those reported by Lee (2020).”
“The final outcome depends ________ the sample size.”
“The number of participants ________ 48.”
“A number of studies ________ reported similar effects.”
“The number of participants were 60, and the results was analyzed using SPSS.”
“This is different with earlier work and depends of sample size.”
“A large number of factor contributes for the variation in scores.”
Expanding Student Repertory and Avoiding Monotony
Varying reporting verbs
Move beyond repetitive verbs like “shows” or “says” by introducing nuanced alternatives: demonstrates, suggests, argues, contends, reiterates, substantiates.
| Overused | Nuanced alternatives |
|---|---|
| shows | demonstrates, illustrates, reveals |
| says | argues, contends, asserts, maintains |
| proves | substantiates, corroborates, supports |
| talks about | examines, addresses, explores |
More reporting verbs by function
| Function | Verbs | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Presenting neutrally | reports, notes, observes, describes, examines | “Kim (2022) observes that…” |
| Presenting strong evidence | demonstrates, establishes, confirms, verifies | “The trial confirms that…” |
| Presenting tentative evidence | suggests, indicates, implies, points to | “The data point to a link between…” |
| Presenting a position | argues, contends, maintains, asserts, proposes | “Martin (2020) maintains that…” |
| Questioning or disagreeing | challenges, disputes, questions, refutes | “Park (2023) challenges this view…” |
From informal to formal vocabulary
| Informal | Academic alternative |
|---|---|
| a lot of / lots of | a substantial number of, a considerable amount of |
| big, huge | substantial, considerable, significant |
| get, got | obtain, receive, acquire, become |
| find out | determine, establish, ascertain |
| look at | examine, investigate, consider |
| use | employ, apply, utilize |
| need | require |
| enough | sufficient, adequate |
| but, so | however, therefore, consequently |
| think | consider, argue, propose |
Useful academic collocations
- conduct a study / an analysis / an experiment
- administer a survey / a questionnaire
- yield results / findings
- draw a conclusion / draw on previous work
- address a gap / a limitation / a question
- raise concerns / raise questions
- pose a challenge / pose a risk
- shed light on / lend support to
- account for the variance / a proportion of the sample
- warrant further investigation
Extra practice (optional)
“Ethical approval was ________ before data collection began.”
“________ participants reported improved sleep.”
“These findings ________ the mechanisms behind the effect.”
“The study looked at how kids get better at reading. It found out that a lot of them need more help.”
“Smith (2019) shows that feedback helps. Jones (2020) shows that feedback does not help. Lee (2021) shows that it depends on the student.”
Phraseological Frame Workshop
Convert each informal or repetitive draft sentence into polished academic prose using functional sentence frames.
Extra practice (optional)
“We used a survey. We asked 300 people. It was about their sleep. We used a computer program to check the numbers.”
“The graph shows that the number of users went up a lot in 2021 and then it went down a bit in 2022.”
“This is a big problem and our results are really important. More research must be done.”
“We wanted to know if apps help students. We gave 90 students an app for 8 weeks. They got better grades, but we are not sure the app caused it.”
Functional Phraseology Portfolio
Below is a raw dataset summary and three unstructured research notes on a workplace wellness study.
Note 1: Average stress score dropped from 6.8 to 5.1 after the pilot.
Note 2: Absenteeism fell by roughly 22% across all six companies, though one company saw almost no change.
Note 3: Researchers used a paired t-test to compare pre- and post-pilot stress scores; the difference was statistically significant (p < 0.01).
Task: Draft a 200-word mini-methodology and results section utilizing at least six distinct functional sentence frames from the categories covered in this session (defining, methods, trends, discussion). Vary your reporting verbs and check preposition usage and subject-verb agreement carefully.
Model answer: mini-methodology and results section (208 words)
[Define] The primary objective of this investigation is to examine whether flexible scheduling can reduce employee stress and absenteeism. In the context of this study, flexible scheduling is defined as an arrangement that gives employees some control over their start and finish times.
[Methods] To evaluate the effects of the pilot, 180 employees across six companies participated in a 12-week flexible-scheduling program. Self-reported stress (on a scale from 1 to 10) and absenteeism (days per month) were measured by means of pre- and post-pilot surveys. Differences between pre- and post-pilot stress scores were tested using a paired t-test.
[Trends] The results indicate a statistically significant reduction in stress (p < 0.01), with mean scores falling from 6.8 to 5.1. As shown in the post-pilot surveys, absenteeism declined by roughly 22% across the six companies. However, this pattern was not uniform, since one company recorded almost no change.
[Discuss] These findings suggest that flexible scheduling may reduce stress and absenteeism in workplace settings, and they are consistent with the view that greater control over working hours reduces work-related strain. Nevertheless, the results should be interpreted with caution because stress was self-reported and the pre-post design cannot rule out other explanations. Further research is needed to establish why one company showed almost no change.
Frames used (12):
- The primary objective of this investigation is to examine… (Define)
- In the context of this study, [Term] is defined as… (Define)
- To evaluate [Variable]… was/were… (Methods)
- …were measured by means of… (Methods)
- Differences between… were tested using a paired t-test (Methods)
- The results indicate a statistically significant… (Trends)
- As shown in… (Trends)
- However, this pattern was not uniform… (Trends)
- These findings suggest that… (Discuss)
- …are consistent with the view that… (Discuss)
- These results should be interpreted with caution because… (Discuss)
- Further research is needed to establish… (Discuss)
Why this works: The model draws on all four categories: defining, methods, trends and discussion. It varies its reporting verbs (“indicate,” “suggest”) and uses trend vocabulary (“falling from,” “declined”). It also uses the passive voice for procedures, past tense for completed actions and present tense for interpretation. Prepositions and subject-verb agreement are checked: “by means of,” “tested using,” “consistent with,” “a reduction in,” “the results should be.” Only figures from the raw dataset and notes are used, and the discussion hedges its claims with “may” and “suggest.”
Session 15 Summary Sheet
Download a two-page PDF summarising the four phraseology categories, the plagiarism boundary, grammar guidelines, and a phrase bank with vocabulary from this session.
Session 15: Functional Academic Phraseology
Four phrase categories · plagiarism boundary · prepositions · reporting verbs
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Read the summary on this page
The plagiarism boundary
Content-neutral sentence frames are communal property and require no citation. Plagiarism means copying an author’s original analysis, unique ideas, or specific wording.
Four frame categories
- Define
- “In the context of this study, X is defined as…”
- Methods
- “Data were analyzed using multi-variable regression models…”
- Trends
- “The empirical results indicate a significant relationship between…”
- Discuss
- “A potential limitation of this approach is its reliance on…”
Prepositional precision
in accordance WITH / with respect TO / attributed TO / correlated WITH
Reporting verb variety
Instead of shows/says: demonstrates, suggests, argues, contends, reiterates, substantiates
Phraseology phrase bank
Defining and introducing work
- In the context of this study, X is defined as…
- For the purposes of this paper, X refers to…
- The primary objective of this investigation is to examine…
- This study seeks to determine whether…
Describing methods
- A total of N participants were recruited from…
- Data were collected by means of…
- Informed consent was obtained from all participants.
- Differences between groups were tested using…
Reporting trends
- As shown in Table 1, X experienced a substantial increase…
- Figure 2 illustrates a steady decline in…
- Contrary to initial expectations, no significant difference was observed…
- Overall, X remained relatively stable…
Discussing results
- These findings corroborate earlier research by…
- One plausible explanation for this result is…
- These results should be interpreted with caution because…
- Future research should investigate whether…
Trend vocabulary
- Up: rise, grow, climb
- Down: fall, decline, drop
- Stable: plateau, level off
- Degree: sharply, steadily, slightly; substantial, marked, negligible
- Say ‘not statistically significant’, not ‘insignificant’.
Prepositions
- differ FROM
- consist OF
- be based ON
- depend ON
- result IN (outcome) / FROM (cause)
- contribute TO
- associated WITH
- an increase IN
- the effect OF X ON Y
- compared WITH/TO
Subject-verb agreement
- The number of participants WAS…
- A number of participants WERE…
- The data WERE collected…
- Neither A nor B REVEALED…
- Research IS growing (uncountable).
Informal to formal
- a lot of > a substantial number of
- big > substantial
- get > obtain
- find out > determine
- look at > examine
- use > employ
- need > require
- think > consider/argue
Session 15 complete
You have covered content-neutral phraseology, the plagiarism boundary, four categories of functional sentence frames, prepositional precision, subject-verb agreement, and reporting verb variety. Download your takeaway summary any time from the previous step.