Source Hierarchy and Substantiation
This session launches Module 4: Literature Synthesis, Functional Language & Research Ethics. You will learn to distinguish primary, secondary, and tertiary literature, validate claims with a preponderance of evidence, calibrate citation frequency, and select accurate citation tenses.
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
- Evaluate and categorize sources into primary, secondary, and tertiary literature, prioritizing peer-reviewed primary research.
- Apply the rule of substantiation by validating non-common claims with a preponderance of high-quality evidence.
- Differentiate between common knowledge and citable assertions to avoid under-citation and unnecessary clutter.
- Select appropriate citation tenses based on whether the focus is a specific study, an ongoing trend, or an established fact.
- Contrast author-prominent and information-prominent citation structures.
The Hierarchy of Academic Evidence
Primary sources
Original research articles, empirical trial data, historical artifacts, or raw datasets reporting first-hand scientific findings. Primary, peer-reviewed articles form the bedrock of scholarly substantiation.
Secondary sources
Literature reviews, meta-analyses, and scholarly books that summarize, synthesize, or evaluate primary studies. Useful for establishing broad context or finding primary citations.
Tertiary sources
Encyclopedias, textbooks, Wikipedia, and popular media summaries. Used for initial orientation or background understanding, but generally excluded as primary cited evidence in rigorous academic papers.
Evaluating peer-review credibility
Understand journal impact, peer-review filtering, and avoid predatory or unverified self-published sources. Not every journal that claims to be peer-reviewed applies rigorous editorial standards.
Substantiation, Citation Density, and Common Knowledge
The rule of substantiation
Academic arguments require claims to be backed by a preponderance of empirical evidence rather than personal assumption or single anecdotal cases. One study rarely settles a question on its own; a body of converging evidence does.
Common knowledge vs. citable claims
| Category | Definition | Example | Citation needed? |
|---|---|---|---|
| General common knowledge | Facts widely known by the general public | “Water freezes at 0°C.” | No |
| Discipline-specific common knowledge | Core principles universally accepted within a field | “DNA consists of a double-helix structure.” | No, for field specialists |
| Citable assertions | Specific statistics, experimental findings, contested interpretations, or novel frameworks | “78% of surveyed employees reported increased satisfaction.” | Yes, immediately |
Balancing citation frequency
Under-citation: leaving factual assertions unsupported, creating “orphan claims.”
Over-citation: citing the same source after every single sentence in a paragraph summarizing a single study, creating visual clutter.
The Grammar of Citation: Selecting Tenses
Three core citation tenses each signal a different relationship to the cited research.
Simple past (focus on specific past action)
Usage: reporting specific findings, experiments, or methodological choices from individual prior studies.
“Chen (2021) measured the surface temperature of green roofs across three urban zones.”
Present perfect (focus on ongoing trends / general body of work)
Usage: summarizing a general body of research, recent trends, or cumulative findings stretching up to the present, without focusing on one specific experiment date.
“Several studies have demonstrated a strong correlation between green space and urban heat reduction (e.g., Smith, 2019; Taylor, 2022).”
Simple present (focus on timeless facts / current relevance)
Usage: stating established scientific facts, reporting what a text or model currently demonstrates, or discussing persistent theoretical views.
“The thermal model indicates that vegetation absorbs solar radiation.”
Citation Structures: Author-Prominent vs. Information-Prominent
NarrativeAuthor-prominent citations
Structure: the author’s name is part of the sentence grammar.
Focus: emphasizes who conducted the research; useful when comparing competing researchers’ perspectives.
“According to Miller (2020), remote work improves employee retention.”
ParentheticalInformation-prominent citations
Structure: the citation appears entirely in parentheses at the end of the sentence or clause.
Focus: emphasizes what was found rather than who found it; standard for empirical reporting.
“Remote work models significantly improve overall employee retention (Miller, 2020).”
Source and Tense Audit Workshop
Edit the flawed draft below, correcting improper tenses, fixing under-citation, and converting informal citation phrasing.
Substantiation and Citation Tense Calibration
Below is a 200-word un-cited passage containing a mix of general facts, empirical claims, and literature references.
Task: Identify which sentences require citations, insert placeholder citations using both author-prominent and information-prominent formats, and calibrate all verb tenses (simple past, present perfect, simple present) accurately.
Submit your annotated passage using the form below.
Session 13 Summary Sheet
Download a one-page PDF summarising the source hierarchy, common knowledge rules, citation tenses, and citation structures from this session.
Session 13: Source Hierarchy and Substantiation
Source hierarchy · substantiation rule · citation tenses · citation structures
Session 13 complete
You have covered the source hierarchy, the rule of substantiation, common knowledge vs. citable claims, citation tenses, and citation structures. Download your takeaway summary any time from the previous step.