Designing effective language-learning materials means matching the right exercise type to the right level of learner support. This taxonomy maps out six scaffolding levels, from initial input through to independent, AI-supported production. It lists the concrete exercise types and activity variants available at each stage. If you are building an e-learning course or briefing an AI tool to generate materials for you, this table is designed to be a practical reference for sequencing exercises with intention rather than guesswork. This is not designed to be a training methodology, so whatever approach you pick will also have some influence on how you do things. This is organised according to degree of cognitive load the tasks place on the learners.
| Level | Function | Skill/Task | Content Block | Activity Types | Cognitive Demand |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Input / Expectations | Reading | Learning Goals | Orientation — no interaction | Processing expected learning outcomes |
| Input / Acquisition | Reading | Static Page (text, tables & images) | Article/blog post, report, presentation slide, grammar explanation | Receive/process input before any testing | |
| Input / Acquisition | Recall — Reading/Listening (multimodal task) | Vocabulary (text, image, audio) | Vocabulary list, vocabulary cards | Receive/process input before any testing | |
| Input / Acquisition | Listening | Audio | Monologue, dialogue | Receive/process input before any testing | |
| Input / Acquisition | Listening | Video | Video clip, grammar explainer | Receive/process input before any testing | |
| 2 | Recognition | Identification / Selection | True/False (can include a “not given” option) | Yes/no comprehension check | Judge a given statement as correct/incorrect |
| Recognition | Identification / Selection | Hotspot/Click-the-item | Click on an image | Select and click on a hotspot area defined in an image | |
| Recognition | Identification / Selection | Multiple Choice (text, images & audio) | Standard MCQ quiz, spot the odd one out, minimal pairs, stress-pattern recognition, error identification, best-fit synonym | Select one correct option from given choices (spatial contiguity applies if using audio — audio and quiz must be on the same page) | |
| Recognition | Identification / Selection | Select Many (text, images & audio) | Multi-answer comprehension check, select all correct forms, select all examples of a grammar point, select all synonyms/antonyms | Identify all correct options among several | |
| 3 | Guided Practice | Reordering / Rearrangement | Matching (text, image & audio) | Sentence halves, questions and answers, words and definitions, collocations (verb + noun), synonym/antonym pairs, image-to-word | Pair given items using elements on both sides |
| Guided Practice | Reordering / Rearrangement | Categorization | Sort by part of speech, by function, by register (formal/informal), by topic/theme/group, by grammar tense, true vs. false statements | Sort given items into stated categories | |
| Guided Practice | Reordering / Rearrangement | Ordering (sequencing) | Ranking, order a dialogue, order steps in a process, order a narrative/story sequence | Arrange given items into correct sequence | |
| Guided Practice | Reordering / Rearrangement | Labeling | Drag-and-drop label | Place given labels onto correct visual zones | |
| Guided Practice | Reordering / Rearrangement | Fill the gap — drag & drop | Drag-and-drop gap fill (click version also possible) | Select correct word/form from a limited bank and place it in a sentence or text | |
| Guided Practice | Reordering / Rearrangement | Fill the gap — drop down | Select a word from a group of words including distractors | Choose correct word/phrase from an inline menu | |
| 4 | Controlled Recall | Recall & Completion | Sentence Building | (a) short/simple (4-5 tokens, no distractors) (b) complex (Satzbau, 5+ tokens, multi-clause, distractors) | Assemble a short sentence from jumbled words; higher demand for longer sentences with more tokens and distractors |
| Controlled Recall | Recall & Completion | Fill the Gap Text (short cloze type) | (a) write a word (b) complete a word | (a) Recall and type correct word/form with no bank (b) Complete a word with some letters provided | |
| Controlled Recall | Recall & Completion/Transformation | Open Answer (longer cloze type) | (a) recall and type correct phrase with no bank (b) dictation (c) error correction (d) transformation of prompts | (a) Write full sentences using provided starters (b) Listen to audio and write exactly what was heard (c) Read sentences and correct mistakes (d) Read a sentence and transform items | |
| 5 | Controlled Production | Controlled Speaking | Dialogue Practice (audiolingual drilling: 1-Listen, 2-Listen & Repeat, 3-Listen & take part) | (a) scripted dialogue (b) cued/gapped dialogue (c) unscripted learner contribution | (a) Speak/read a pre-written role (b) Speak a cued or gapped role (c) Take part in a recorded dialogue with no script |
| Controlled Production | Identification & Selection, Controlled Speaking | Spoken Multiple Choice | Multiple choice with voice recognition | Select and read the correct sentence aloud | |
| Controlled Production | Controlled Speaking | Pronunciation | Voice recognition and feedback | Read sentences and receive feedback on stress and pronunciation | |
| 6 | Production / Guided Output | Recall & Writing | Writing Task with AI feedback | (a) write a given text (AI or delayed trainer feedback) (b) write sentences with prompts | (a) Produce a full text; receive AI feedback on grammar/coherence (b) Produce sentences based on prompts and receive AI feedback |
| Production / Guided Output | Recall & Speaking | Recording with AI feedback | Record a presentation (AI or delayed trainer feedback) | Record spontaneous spoken response; AI feedback on pronunciation/fluency | |
| Production / Guided Output | Recall & Speaking | AI Speaking Partner | (a) role-play scenario/simulation (with useful phrases) (b) AI trainer (open-ended session) | (a) Open-ended role-play with AI, no fixed script (b) Open-ended training session with AI, no fixed scenario |
If you like this, you might also enjoy my article on Instructional Scaffolding, which looks into what instructional scaffolding really is in a bit more depth.
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